Children entering kindergarten whose fathers had depression were more likely to experience behavior issues and poor social skills by age 9 years, according to a new study.
Investigators analyzed data from a national birth cohort of more than 1,400 children. The study was among the first to assess the long-term effects of paternal depression using teacher reports.
The investigators followed the children from birth and collected teacher assessments when the children turned 9 years old. Fathers were screened for major depressive symptoms when the children were aged 5 years using a validated diagnostic tool. Teachers later rated classroom behaviors using two standardized scales measuring attention problems, hyperactivity, oppositional behavior, and social skills.
Even after adjusting for family background, household income, education, and whether the father lived with the child, paternal depression remained strongly linked to behavioral issues. The children whose fathers had depression scored 36% higher on oppositional behavior, 37% higher on hyperactivity, and 25% higher on attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms.
Teachers also reported lower social skills in these children, including reduced cooperation, self-control, and assertiveness. On average, their social skill scores were 11% lower. They were also more likely to exhibit externalizing behaviors such as aggression, and internalizing symptoms like anxiety.
Lead study author Kristine Schmitz, MD, of Rutgers University, and colleagues said the results showed the impact of paternal mental health beyond the early postpartum period. “Paternal depression when children transitioned to kindergarten was associated with poorer teacher ratings of behaviors and social skills at age 9 years,” they said. These associations remained even after adjusting for maternal depression and household characteristics.
The findings came from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, which began tracking children born in large U.S. cities between 1998 and 2000. The cohort included a racially and economically diverse population and oversampled children born to unmarried parents. At age 5 years, about 9% of the fathers screened positive for depression.
As a result of the findings, the investigators emphasized the value of teacher assessments as an independent source of behavioral data. Unlike parent reports, which may be influenced by the parent's own mental health, teacher evaluations could provide an external perspective on how children behave in school settings.
The investigators suggested the findings may point to a larger role for pediatricians and educators in identifying at-risk families. While pediatricians have regular contact with families, routine screening for paternal depression remains uncommon in clinical practice.
The investigators called for further research on how paternal depression affects children over time and recommended expanding support services for fathers—particularly as children begin school, a key stage in social and behavioral development.
The study was funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. The authors reported no conflicts of interest.